An Educators' Guide to Schoolwide Reform - Home
An Educators' Guide to Schoolwide Reform - Introduction
An Educators' Guide to Schoolwide Reform - Acknowledgments
An Educators' Guide to Schoolwide Reform - Overview
An Educators' Guide to Schoolwide Reform - 24 Approaches
An Educators' Guide to Schoolwide Reform - Catalogs & Reviews
An Educators' Guide to Schoolwide Reform - References
An Educators' Guide to Schoolwide Reform - Appendices
An Educators' Guide to Schoolwide Reform - Ordering Information

An Educators' Guide to Schoolwide Reform

APPENDIX E
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS ON
IMPLEMENTATION

Summary of Implementation for Accelerated Schools

Source

Number of Sites Studied

Type

Number of Years in Operation

School Grade Level

School Urbanicity

Student

Demographics

Key Findings
Knight, Stallings (1995)

1

 Original 1 year Elementary Urban Low SES Changes include improved teacher and student expec-tations; gains in student achievement; gains in teacher and student attendance.
Levin (1994)

3

 Replicate na Elementary na na Teachers felt free to re-examine their teaching, take risks, and experiment with different strategies. Classrooms became more constructivist with many projects originated by students. Some schools cited improved test scores, fewer discipline problems. Cautions: expect this process to take up to 6 years; schools must provide adequate training and support.
Levin (1995)

4

 Replicate na Middle, elementary na Low SES Standardized test scores rose in all schools. Other results include: increased parent involvement, fewer behavior problems, decreased retention in grade. Study cites the need for more attention to capacity building, need for more staff time, and the need to tap the potential of parents as continuing challenges in these schools.
McCarthy, Still (1993)

1

 Replicate 3 years Elementary Urban 91% low SES;

85% LEP

 Despite an increase in LEP students, vandalism decreased, parental involvement increased, and the number of community volunteers increased.
Peters (1996a)

1

 na na Elementary na Special education students Aspects of Accelerated Schools that facilitate learning for special education students: team work or collaboration among teachers, an adaptable curriculum, students feeling a greater sense of belonging than with pull-out programs, increased parental involvement. Adequate collaborative teacher planning time is critical.

 

Summary of Implementation for Accelerated Schools

Source

Number of Sites Studied

Type

Number of Years in Operation

School Grade Level

School Urbanicity

Student

Demographics

Key Findings
Peters (1996b) 1 na na Middle na Special education students Collaborative teamwork and a sense of community are critical components of the approach. Special education teachers often feel isolated, and this remains a challenge.
Peters, McBride (1997) 46 na na 43 Elementary na 72% minority Most schools defined "acceleration" as an instructional strategy (e.g., hands-on learning) rather than an approach that incorporates such strategies. Challenges to implementation: conceptualizing approach as on-going process; meeting needs of low-achieving students; professional development; staff enthusiasm and involvement; and time.
Weisman (1994) 1 Replicate 2 years Elementary Urban 80% public assistance Parent involvement rose. Teachers focused on student strengths or "power learning." Concerns include that it is a "slow, frustrating" process and that it relies heavily on the involvement of the current principal and so may not last.

 

Summary of Implementation for America’s Choice

Source

Number of Sites Studied

Type

Number of Years in Operation

School Grade Level

School Urbanicity

Student

Demographics

Key Findings
Bodilly, Keltner, Purnell, Reichardt, Schuyler (1998) 7 Replicate 2 years na 7 urban na Showed lower levels of implementation than other approaches.

Focused on non-core elements.

Two sites demonstrated capability to combine AC with other approaches.
Bodilly, Purnell, Ramsey, Keith (1996) 5 Original 2 years K-5 (4),

6-8 (1)

 3 urban,

2 rural

 37-93% free lunch Some progress made on all components.

Beginning progress: instruction, curriculum, student assignment, integrated social services.

Moderate progress: standards, assessments, community involvement, professional development, district governance, state governance, staff and organization.

Substantial progress: school governance.

School committees organized around central implemen-ation tasks resulted in more focused efforts.

Number of sites and complexity of plan presented problems for implementation.
Bodilly, Purnell, Ramsey, Smith (1995) 5 Original Planning phase K-5 (4),

6-8 (1)

 3 urban,

2 rural

 37-93% free lunch America’s Choice characteristics that contribute to good implementation: design team leaders experienced in school reform.

America’s Choice characteristics that slowed implemen-tation: new team members, creating structure and staff, large number of sites, comprehensiveness of design.

 

Summary of Implementation for ATLAS Communities

Source

Number of Sites Studied

Type

Number of Years in Operation

School Grade Level

School Urbanicity

Student

Demographics

Key Findings
Bodilly, Keltner, Purnell, Reichardt, Schulyer (1998) 5 schools Replicate 2 years na Urban na Slow to begin implementation (perhaps because of minimal district support). In the second year of implementation, half of the schools were piloting the approach.
Bodilly, Purnell, Ramsey, Keith (1996) 2 pathways

11 schools

 Original 2 years K-12 Rural, urban 16-92% free lunch Schools chose to postpone implementation of some components (i.e., decentralizing management, staffing, integrated social services). Modest progress implement-ing: standards, community involvement, professional development, school and district governance, staff and organization. Difficult to implement: instruction, curriculum, assessment, student assignment, integrated social services.
Bodilly, Purnell, Ramsey, Smith (1995) 2 pathways

11 schools

 Original Planning phase K-12

 

Summary of Implementation for ATLAS Communities

Source

Number of Sites Studied

Type

Number of Years in Operation

School Grade Level

School Urbanicity

Student

Demographics

Key Findings
Rosenblum Brigham Associates (1998) 2 pathways

3 schools

 Original 5 years K-12 Urban 57% Caucasian;

39% African-American;

55% free lunch

 Well implemented: changing school organization and schedule; using student exhibitions; instructional changes (i.e., interdisciplinary lessons focused on "essential questions," lesson planning).

Poorly implemented: pathway (did not include all elementary or middle schools that feed high school).
  6 schools       Suburban/ rural Mostly Caucasian Well implemented: pathway (all schools in district); instructional changes (i.e., portfolios, three-way conferences, student projects).

Poorly implemented: school management (management decentralized some, but not as much as approach advocates); exhibitions (not well integrated).
Ross, Troutman, Horgan, Maxwell, Laitinen, Lowther (1997) 1 pathway

3 schools

 Replicate 1 year K-12 Urban na Well implemented: study groups, instructional changes, School Planning and Management Team.

Poorly implemented: professional development (few teachers at intensive training, training too abstract), pathway.


Summary of Implementation for Audrey Cohen College:
Purpose-Centered Education

Source

Number of Sites Studied

Type

Number of Years in Operation

School Grade Level

School Urbanicity

Student

Demographics

Key Findings
Bodilly, Keltner, Purnell, Reichardt, Schuyler (1998) 4 schools Replicate 2 years K-12 Urban 70% avg. free lunch Moderate level of implementation.

Slim field structure and leadership challenges.
Bodilly, Purnell, Ramsey, Keith (1996) 3 schools Original 2 years K-8 Urban 40-90% free lunch Well on way toward goals/significant progress;

1 of the 2 most implemented of 9 models studied.
Bodilly, Purnell, Ramsey, Smith (1995)1 10 schools Original Planning phase K-12 Urban 70% avg. free lunch Design team ready; strong background.
Ross, Troutman, Horgan, Maxwell, Laitinen, Lowther (1997) 4 schools Replicate 1 year K-12 na na Greater implementation related to teachers’ understanding of design and willingness to restructure curriculum.

Greater implementation for lower grade levels.

1 The study examines the same Audrey Cohen College Schools as Bodilly, Purnell, Ramsey, and Keith (1996).

 

Summary of Implementation for Basic Schools Network

No studies on implementation of the Basic Schools Network are publicly
available. The full report on the Basic Schools Network will be released
in spring 1999.

Summary of Implementation for Coalition of Essential Schools

Source

Number of Sites Studied

Type

Number of Years in Operation

School Grade Level

School Urbanicity

Student

Demographics

Key Findings
Ancess (1995) 5 schools Replicate na 3 high schools

2 elementary schools

 4 urban,

1 suburban

  Five schools affiliated with CES successfully imple-mented authentic assessments consistent with CES common principles.
Anderson, Shirley (1995) 15 schools in larger study;

6 for this part

 Replicate 9 months High school Mixed na The likelihood of project success rests with the principal; principals must assume different roles to ensure project success.
Cohen (1994) 1 school Replicate 2 years 9th grade Suburban na Implementation of the planned changes was hindered by: 1) personality conflicts and differing ideas of actions to be taken; 2) problems in defining just what is meant by "collaboration"; 3) unsupportive school and district administrators; and 4) inadequate funding.
Darling-Hammond, Ancess Falk (1995) 5 schools Replicate na 3 high schools

2 elementary Schools

 4 urban

1 suburban

   Five schools affiliated with CES successfully imple-mented authentic assessments consistent with CES’ common principles.
Dawson, Bartuneck (1995) 20 schools surveyed

(17 respondents)

 Replicate 5 years High school 5 rural,

4 suburban,

11 urban

na Schools had defined the Common Principles similarly, but their understanding of the principles did not seem to be very deep. They did not recognize the interconnected-ness of the principles.
Desmond (1992) 1 school Replicate 1 year 10th grade Small city 75% minority;

25% Caucasian

 Increased student responsibility for the construction of knowledge and a change in teachers’ assessment methods with an increase in assessment as an integral component of instruction.
Hampel (1995) 8 schools Replicate 5 years 3 high schools

3 middle schools

2 elementary schools

 na na Four types of teacher response to the CES approach are identified, the "vanguard," the "yes, but…," the "sleepy," and the "cynical."

 

Summary of Implementation for Coalition of Essential Schools

Source

Number of Sites Studied

Type

Number of Years in Operation

School Grade Level

School Urbanicity

Student

Demographics

Key Findings
King, Louth, Wasley (1993)

1 school

 Replicate na High school na na The interactions between researchers and school staff, and school staff members’ reactions to the researchers’ report, revealed how difficult it was for school staff to read anything critical of their practice, even when positive comments were also made. The collaboration, however, helped the school better identify what it wanted from its reform effort.
Malloy (1996)

1 school

 Replicate 1 year High school Rural 68% Caucasian;

32% African-American

 Findings of this study of a pilot school-within-a school project include: 1) the image of the program was positive in the school community; 2) teacher commitment to implement instructional changes was uneven; 3) students outside the school-within-a-school thought that the program inflated participating students’ grades; and 4) evaluation of the effectiveness of the program was difficult to conduct because the students in the program were not like their peers in the larger school. (School-within-a-school students were more likely to be white than their whole-school counterparts.)
McDonald (1996)

10 schools

 na Minimum of 5 years High school 4 urban,

5 suburban,

1 rural

 Mixed socioeconomic status Local context affects the design of the approach at each school, so there is no standard model; focus on "ordered threesome" of core beliefs, distribution of certain resources, and links with outside values and ideas.

 

Summary of Implementation for Coalition of Essential Schools

Source

Number of Sites Studied

Type

Number of Years in Operation

School Grade Level

School Urbanicity

Student

Demographics

Key Findings
Muncey, McQuillan (1996) 8 schools Replicate 5 years High school Mixed na Reports findings of the School Ethnography project, a five-year study of 8 CES schools. Findings of the project included: 1) because not all teachers in schools felt change was necessary, it was difficult to get these teachers to participate in the project; 2) change is always political; 3) historically "successful" and "unsuccessful" schools did not make similar types of changes as a result of CES participation; 4) schools with high dropout rates and poor attendance could achieve some success, but schools already "successful" were unsure how to define success; 5) the more pervasive the changes—that is, the more schoolwide—the more likely that changes will endure; 6) similarly, the school-within-a-school model employed by several schools did not evolve into schoolwide change, and it typically created tensions among faculty members; 7) teachers had insufficient time for planning and reflection in most schools; 8) despite insufficient time, there was a sense in these schools that self-reflection on the part of teachers and schools is important; and 9) depth of reform at all levels was often sacrificed for breadth.
Prestine (undated) 4 schools Replicate 9 years 1 high school (9-12);

1 junior high (7-8);

1 middle
(6-8);

1 secondary (7-12)

 Small city,

midsize city,

suburb,

rural

 na Findings included: 1) over time, schools’ efforts to become "essential" schools became diluted in larger patterns of district-initiated reform efforts; 2) schools experienced conflict between attempting to implement the Common Principles and the daily need to "keep school"; 3) factors outside teachers’ control (e.g., new state mandates, departures of administrators) had dramatic effects on school reform efforts; 4) even when there is agreement on what the goals of reform should be, disagreement about how to achieve the goals can be considerable.

 

Summary of Implementation for Coalition of Essential Schools

Source

Number of Sites Studied

Type

Number of Years in Operation

School Grade Level

School Urbanicity

Student

Demographics

Key Findings
Prestine, Bowen (1993) 4 schools Replicate 2.5 years 1 high school (9-12);

1 junior high (7-8);

1 middle
(6-8);

1 secondary (7-12)

 Small city,

midsize city,

suburb,

rural

 na Six factors that affected schools’ ability to change include: 1) uncertainty about the meaning of the Common Principles is a barrier to reform; 2) schools were aggressive in making use of the opportunity presented by the Re: Learning Project, but they differed in how they saw that opportunity; 3) the more successful schools in the reform effort saw changes as means, not ends; 4) it was difficult for schools to gauge their capacity for change, sometimes being too ambitious and sometimes not ambitious enough; 5) a combination of "top-down participation" and "bottom-up initiative" was important to successful change; and 6) a balance between change and stability is important.
Prestine, Bragg (undated) 2 schools Replicate 5 years High school Rural,

suburb

 300 students

2,800 students

 CES and Tech Prep initiatives were marginalized within the context of the larger comprehensive high school, though the "essential school" program somewhat less so. This was particularly true of the suburban "essential" school-within-a-school¾ a high school already perceived by its community as very successful. The authors noted that, "At once a great strength and a great weakness, the Coalition’s adamant refusal to adopt any kind of ‘model’ for essential school change left schools floundering as there simply were not any benchmarks by which to gauge either progress toward implementation or fidelity to intent."
Raywid (1994) 1 school Replicate na High school Urban   Teachers successfully adopted practices consistent with CES’ Common Principles. Flexible scheduling allowed programmatic purposes, rather than a rigid schedule to dictate when students learn.


Summary of Implementation for Coalition of Essential Schools

Source

Number of Sites Studied

Type

Number of Years in Operation

School Grade Level

School Urbanicity

Student

Demographics

Key Findings
Shirley, Anderson (1994) 15 schools in one part,

6 schools in others

 Replicate 9 months High school Mixed na Findings includes: 1) teachers and administrators differed in their understanding of the Common Principles (though they also say they agree with the Principles); 2) they perceive some Principles as more important than others and some as more difficult to implement than others; 3) it was unclear in many schools where leadership in the reform effort lay; 4) a "critical mass" of teachers in most schools already teach in ways consistent with the Principles; and 5) major changes would have to take place if the Principles were to be implemented successfully.
Stapleford (1994) 1 school Replicate na High school Rural Predominantly Caucasian Findings include: 1) a greater emphasis on faculty dialogue in the CES school; 2) the CES school was able to overcome the liability of an unsupportive principal; 3) no fundamental changes in teacher-administrator roles and relationships; 4) limited parental involvement; and 5) more use of cooperative learning and student exhibitions in the CES school.

 

 

Summary of Implementation for Community for Learning

Source

Number of Sites Studied

Type

Number of Years in Operation

School Grade Level

School Urbanicity

Student

Demographics

Key Findings
Oates, Flores, Weishew (1997) 1 school Replicate 1 year Middle Urban 93% low-income;

78% Hispanic

 Implementation was high. For example, school staff used meetings, common weekly preparation time, an on-site graduate level course offered to teachers, and several projects to foster parent involvement.
Reynolds, et al. (1992) 3 schools Replicate 5 years Elementary Rural 25% Chapter 1 Same curricula used in all 5 years of study. Schools used mastery exams.
Temple University (1997) 5 schools Original 1 year Elementary Urban High poverty, low achievement Pre-implementation was feasible; the pre-implemen-tation training provided school staff with sufficient knowledge and skills to implement the program; classroom instructional practices did in fact change as a result of the program; student achievement improved.
Wang (1983) 138 teachers in 10 districts Replicate Varied Elementary Varied Varied The average degree of implementation, as measured by ALEM’s 12 critical dimensions, across sites, was 92%, ranging from 85%-96%. Across sites, all dimensions were implemented at above 83%, with 8 out of 12 implemented above 90%.
Wang, Birch (1984a) 1 school Not reported Not reported Elementary Not reported Not reported Special education students were mainstreamed full-time.
Wang, Birch (1984b) 156 class-rooms in 10 districts Replicate Varied Elementary Varied Varied Out of 138 teachers, 39.9% had high (at 85% or above on at least 11 critical dimensions), 56.5% had average (at 85% or above on at least 6 critical dimensions), and 3.6% had low implementation.
Wang, Gennari, Waxman (1985) 252 classrooms Not Reported Varied Elementary Varied Varied Overall averages studying a year of implementation, across critical dimensions, were 77% to 88% on the 1st visit (fall), 88% to 94% on the 2nd visit (winter), and 91% to 97% on the 3rd visit (spring).
Wang et al. (1984) 10 districts Replicate Varied Elementary Varied Varied Same as Wang (1983).

 

Summary of Implementation for Community for Learning

Source

Number of Sites Studied

Type

Number of Years in Operation

School Grade Level

School Urbanicity

Student

Demographics

Key Findings
Wang, Oates, Weishew (1995) 3 schools Replicate 1-2 years Mostly elementary, but 1 middle school Urban High poverty level; 1 school primarily African-American, the other 2 primarily Hispanic School 1—Parent involvement initiatives viewed as highly successful; instituted Saturday planning meet-ings; staff development/planning sessions are organized schoolwide by grade or implementation needs.

School 2—During first year of implementation, 15 minutes added to the beginning and end of each day to allow for early dismissal and staff planning time; 7 parents hired as parent scholars; monthly health visits from a local medical facility.

School 3 (middle school)—School divided into "houses." All houses participate in weekly school planning and management meetings; comprehensive health clinic established; biweekly parent workshops; on-site graduate-level course for teachers.

CFL students had significantly higher perceptions of feedback, aspirations for self, self-concept, task orientation, rules clarity, satisfaction, perceptions of teacher aspirations for students, involvement, and affiliation. CFL schools achieved a multicultural, socially active, non-traditional, interdisciplinary instructional environment.

 

Summary of Implementation for Community for Learning

Source

Number of Sites Studied

Type

Number of Years in Operation

School Grade Level

School Urbanicity

Student

Demographics

Key Findings
Wang, Peverly, Randolph (1984) 26 class-rooms in 5 schools Replicate 1 year Not reported Urban Varied By spring, all sites had an average implementation score across dimensions of at least 94%.

Variables significantly correlated with level of CFL implementation include: teacher initiation of inter-actions (.08); greater amount of instructional interactions and fewer management interactions (.16 and -.20); more prescriptive activities and fewer exploratory activities (.36 and -.21); more whole group and less individual instruction (.20 and -.22); more self-initiated and less assigned work (.62 and -.62); and less time waiting for the teacher (-.13).
Wang, Walberg (1983) 138 teachers in 10 districts Replicate Varied Elementary Varied Varied Dimensions most consistently implemented included: record keeping, prescribing, diagnostic testing, and managing aides. Dimensions with some variation included: arranging space and facilities, establishing and communicating rules and procedures, monitoring and diagnosing, instructing, and motivating. Dimensions with wide variation included: creating and maintaining instructional materials, interactive teaching, and devel-oping student self-responsibility.

 

Summary of Implementation for Co-NECT

Source

Number of Sites Studied

Type

Number of Years in Operation

School Grade Level

School Urbanicity

Student

Demographics

Key Findings
Bodilly, Keltner, Purnell, Reichardt, Schuyler (1998)

6

 Replicate 2 years na Urban na In the second year of implementation, one school was planning, two schools were piloting, and three schools were implementing Co-NECT.
Bodilly, Purnell, Ramsey, Keith (1996)

2

 Original 2 years K-8 Urban 80-98%
free lunch		 Some progress made on all components. Well imple-mented: project-based instruction, coordination with standards, student assignment to groups (sometimes multi-age groups), and professional development. Inconsistently implemented: curriculum change, performance-based assessment, and community involvement (not a key component).
Bodilly, Purnell, Ramsey, Smith (1995)1

2

 Original Planning phase K-8 Urban 80-98%
free lunch		 Co-NECT characteristics that contribute to good implementation: focused on few elements, targeted curriculum and instruction early, involved few collab-orators, design team developed models.

Co-NECT characteristics that slowed implementation: materials developed by schools, limited reform experience for developers.
Co-NECT (1998a)

1

 Replicate 3 years Elementary Urban 100% African-American; 80% free/reduced lunch Co-NECT was well implemented after three years. The school was organized into clusters; teachers spent two hours per week in common planning time, organizing projects and examining students’ work.
Co-NECT (1998b)

1

 Replicate 2 years 9-12 Urban 92% African-American; 42% free/reduced lunch Two years into the program, students were grouped into multi-age groups; teachers were using projects; 100% of graduating seniors went to college. Major obstacles to implementation: 1) teachers found it difficult to reorganize the curriculum into projects and to use technology to support the projects; 2) teachers had trouble incorporating new academic standards into their teaching; 3) school ran into external resistance to its new curriculum initiatives and multi-age grouping.

 

Summary of Implementation for Co-NECT

Source

Number of Sites Studied

Type

Number of Years in Operation

School Grade Level

School Urbanicity

Student

Demographics

Key Findings
New England Association of Schools and Colleges (1997)

1

 Original 5 Pre K-12 Urban 44% minority Some faculty were concerned that the project-based approach does not allow them to cover the breadth of material found in traditional curricula. The school had heterogeneous, multi-age levels, organized into two clusters. Cluster teachers had common planning time several times per week. The curriculum was project-based; older students studied thematically integrated content. Curriculum was aligned with state and local standards. Teachers used a variety of instructional techniques; students had access to computers. The design team was established. Parents were involved and informed. The developer provided ongoing support throughout the implementation process.
Ross, Troutman, Horgan, Maxwell, Laitinen, Lowther (1997)

6

 Replicate 1 year Elementary Urban na Well implemented: project-based instruction, student portfolios, teacher teams, Critical Friends, use of technology, parent/ community involvement, adminis-trative support. Poorly implemented: multi-age group-ing in some schools only partially implemented; insufficient technology, staff not prepared for broad changes.

 

Summary of Implementation for Core Knowledge Schools

Source

Number of Sites Studied

Type

Number of Years in Operation

School Grade Level

School Urbanicity

Student

Demographics

Key Findings
American Educator (1996a)

1

 Replicate 3 years Elementary na Middle-class

Caucasian

 Initiative to adopt Core Knowledge came from parents.

School opened with 125 students in K-4; two years later it had 408 in K-6; one year later there was a waiting list of 200 students.

Instructional style varied from class to class, but teachers were covering the same content.
American Educator (1996b)

1

 Replicate 4 years Elementary Urban Majority Hispanic; 96% free lunch;

28% LEP

 School transformed from one with low achievement, behavioral problems, and low parent participation to one where students were achieving at grade level, were actively engaged, and parents were involved.
Stringfield, Datnow, Nunnery, Ross (1996)

6

 Replicate 1 year Elementary Urban   Factors facilitating successful early implementation: 1) extra funding for start-up; 2) common planning time; 3) parent and community support; 4) site-based management; 5) district support; 6) staff interested in teaching CK; 7) team teaching; 8) shared lessons and experience with teachers at other CK schools; 9) assistance in finding materials; and 10) local adaptations.
Stringfield, McHugh

(1996)

5

 Replicate 1 year Elementary Urban na Developing units in teacher teams was less burden-some and more professionally rewarding than develop-ing units as individual teachers. Classes increased emphasis on specifics of history, geography, and literature, and used classroom exhibitions consistent with the approach.
Stringfield, McHugh (1998)

5

 Replicate 3 years Elementary Urban na Two were on their way to institutionalizing CK; 1 had signs of decreased implementation; 2 faced challenges that threatened ability to integrate CK.

First-year challenges: finding time to develop CK cur-riculum, lack of age-appropriate resources, difficulty teaching all of CK content because of conflicts with existing district requirements.

Second year is easier, but still has challenges: training new non-CK-trained teachers; shortage of time for individual and team planning; shortage of money to purchase new (or replace worn) materials.

 

Summary of Implementation for Different Ways of Knowing

Source

Number of Sites Studied

Type

Number of Years in Operation

School Grade Level

School Urbanicity

Student

Demographics

Key Findings
Catterall (1995) 4 schools na na Elementary Urban 90% minority In year 3 of the study, teachers used more interactive classroom discussion, integration of the arts, and calling on students’ prior knowledge than they had in year 1. They also spent more time on literacy-related activities.
Catterall, Dreyfus, DeJarnette (1995) 1 district, 4 schools na 3 years Elementary Urban 66% economically disadvantaged;

50% Latino;

33% Asian immigrants

 Principals were highly satisfied with DWoK training.

Two-thirds of teachers felt that DWoK changed their attitudes about student learning. Teachers felt the approach had changed their strategies for instruction (92%) and assessment (57%). Teachers had positive reactions to the implementation team and study groups.

Compared to control, DWoK school reported similar sense of intrinsic motivation, belief in personal effort, mastery orientation, engagement, and liking school.
Petrosko (1997); Hovda, Kyle (1997); Wang, Sogin (1996) 21-277 schools Primary 2 years Elementary na na Compared to a sample across the state, more DWoK teachers use student-centered instruction (e.g., a physi-cal environment with flexible layout; a variety of materials; active engagement and student talk; integrated instruction, including flexible scheduling, lessons around themes, inquiry in science and social studies; varied instructional strategies; assessment that includes real-world tasks and student self evaluation; teamwork with other teachers; and involving parents).

More teachers in the lower than upper grades used these practices.

Teachers felt their instruction had changed since using DWoK (e.g., integrating instruction of different sub-jects; using more hands-on learning activities, art, and group activities; providing more writing opportunities).

Most principals (95%) felt DWoK had had a positive influence on teaching.

In one school only, teachers resisted using DWoK, according to principals.

 

Summary of Implementation for Direct Instruction

Source

Number of Sites Studied

Type

Number of Years in Operation

School Grade Level

School Urbanicity

Student

Demographics

Key Findings
Brent, DiObilda (1993) 2 Schools Replicate 2+ years Elementary Urban High-poverty; 45% African-American and 45% Hispanic At first, teachers were afraid test scores would drop, so teachers were told they would not be required to meet district objectives and were provided with a DI coach. Students in DI classrooms were a mix between students receiving the program for the entire 2 years and students entering or leaving the program.
Gersten, Carnine, Williams (1982) 7 Schools, 21 Classrooms Replicate 2 years Elementary Urban High-poverty; 52% African-American and 43% Hispanic Teachers were evaluated on level of implementation using the DISC. Results indicate that use of formats and use of signals are acquired first (within 2 months), but correction procedures, good pacing, and maintaining correct student responses take longer to develop (as long as 8 months). Development of skills was slower in paraprofessionals that in teachers.
Gersten, Darch, Gleason (1988) Over 100 DI students (and similar # of controls) in 1 district Replicate 3-4 years (2 cohorts) Elementary Urban High-poverty (over 70% on AFDC);

mostly African-American (approx. 80% of DI group)

 Academic/cognitive objectives taught in 2-5-minute segments starting in kindergarten. Alignment between skills taught in kindergarten and 1st grade. Initially, some of the kindergarten teachers resisted, but resistance faded as the school year progressed.
Gersten, Carnine, Zoref, Cronin (1986) 7 schools, 21 classrooms Replicate 2 years Elementary Urban High-poverty; 52% African-American and 43% Hispanic Teachers were asked to implement DI with only 2 days warning (and 2 days training). "Change was massive." A number of teachers had major initial concerns and initial resistance. However, interviews during the 2nd year showed a substantial improvement. The majority of teachers either embraced the program or, though they didn’t agree with some aspects (most notably, the scripted, mechanical nature of DI), felt that the program was needed in the school and thought the program was beneficial.

 

(continued)

 

Summary of Implementation for Direct Instruction

Source

Number of Sites Studied

Type

Number of Years in Operation

School Grade Level

School Urbanicity

Student

Demographics

Key Findings
Meyer (1984) 12 classrooms Replicate 14 years Elementary Urban High-poverty; 99.9% minority, mixed African-American and Hispanic The school attributed results to the project manager, the DISTAR curriculum, increased time allocated to basic skills, monitoring of student progress, and teacher training.
Meyer, Gersten, Gutkin (1983) 12 classrooms Replicate 14 years Elementary Urban High-poverty; 99.9% minority, mixed African-American and Hispanic Central to the success was the relationship of school staff to the project manager. Also, "parent support has kept the program going" despite a high teacher turnover rate and budget cuts.
Tarver, Jung (1995) 1 classroom Replicate 1 year Elementary Not provided Not provided During the 1st half of the year, teacher-directed instruc-tion was exclusively whole-group, but in January, different grouping patterns were tried. Grouping varied somewhat between low performers and high performers with low performers receiving more Direct Instruction.
Varela-Russo et al. (1997) 29 schools Replicate Varied 1-3 years Elementary Urban Not provided 80% buy-in vote required to be involved in DI. Program focused on schools with students having the greatest need.
Wellington (1994) 8 schools in 1 district Replicate 1 year Elementary Suburban Varied SES and ethnicity (exact percentages not specified) Teachers volunteered to use DI and attended one-day workshop before implementation. Even with volunteer-ing, however, level of acceptance of DI varied. Some were not comfortable with scripted format and different use of manipulatives.

 

Summary of Implementation for Expeditionary Learning
Outward Bound

Source

Number of Sites Studied

Type

Number of Years in Operation

School Grade Level

School Urbanicity

Student

Demographics

Key Findings
Academy for Educational Development (1995) 10 Original 2 years K-12 Urban 19% minority;

46% free lunch;

10% special ed.

 Greatest changes in teaching came from collaborating with other teachers, thinking up front about content and skill outcomes, developing clear criteria for student assessment, having students do multiple drafts of work, and using resources outside the classroom. Teachers not only led expeditions, but also felt more confident and comfortable doing so.

Changes in assessment: most teachers used student portfolios, but little evidence that teachers or students reflected on student learning in portfolios, rather than on samples of work; inconsistent criteria for evaluation of portfolios.

Changes in relationships: teachers felt enhanced profes-sional standing; principals reconfigured own roles; parent involvement increased; community outreach increased.

Changes in organization: flexibility in scheduling; greater planning time; multi-year teaching.

Challenges and opportunities: new schools had difficulty implementing approach due to competing demands, also had high visibility in districts, high staff turnover, pressure to provide outcome evidence, and high parent/community involvement; transformed schools most able to implement approach; phased-in schools had most uneven implementation.
Bodilly, et al. (1998) 6 Replicate 2 years na Urban na In the second year of implementation, ELOB showed higher levels of implementation than all but one other design team studied; strong on whole-staff training and extensive professional development; weak on use of facilitators and team quality checks.

 

Summary of Implementation for Expeditionary Learning
Outward Bound

Source

Number of Sites Studied

Type

Number of Years in Operation

School Grade Level

School Urbanicity

Student

Demographics

Key Findings
Bodilly, Purnell, Ramsey, Keith (1996) 4 Original 2 years K-12 Urban 26-38%
free lunch		 Some progress made on all components.

Well implemented: introduction to staff, training all staff, teaming, time teachers work.

Modestly implemented: instruction, curriculum, pro-fessional development.

Inconsistently implemented: standards, assessments, student assignment, community involvement, staff and organization, participatory governance, concrete mod-els, design team presence at site, strong facilitator at site.

Bodilly, Purnell, Ramsey, Smith (1995) 4 Original Planning phase K-12 Urban 26-38%
free lunch		 Characteristic that facilitated implementation: leadership.

Characteristic that slowed implementation: new team members; creating structure and staff; lack of team experience in school reform.
McQuillan et al. (1994) 6 na 3 years Various na na Full implementation is possible after several years. In one site, learning expeditions and portfolio assessments were common; teachers taught and planned collabora-tively; students worked cooperatively on projects; 45-minute class period eliminated; students grouped heterogeneously in reading and math. Parents and community served on committees and attended student exhibitions. Strong implementation is supported by clear understanding of the approach before adopting it; administrative support; sufficient professional develop-ment time. Successful sites were considered "alterna-tive" before adopting the approach and had additional funding to support professional development. The service component was more difficult to implement; teachers didn’t have enough time to do it.


Summary of Implementation for Expeditionary Learning
Outward Bound

 

Source

Number of Sites Studied

Type

Number of Years in Operation

School Grade Level

School Urbanicity

Student

Demographics

Key Findings
Ross, et al. (1997) 3 Replicate 1 year Elementary, high school Urban na Strengths: principals expressed enthusiasm for design and optimistic about prospects; principals happy with choice of ELOB; teachers enthusiastic about design and implementation, but less so than principals; teachers at one school saw increase in student motivation as result of ELOB; in 2 schools, project-based learning evident and students working in cooperative groups.

Weaknesses: feeling of isolation among teachers; lack of assistance or direction; more planning time needed; need among teachers to see more evidence that approach increased student learning; ELOB training inadequate due to lack of direction from design team at the school during design and implementation, lack of help for teachers in integrating existing curriculum into expeditions, consensus among teachers that design team had little understanding of unique school cultures, vague instruction concerning design of expeditions, training at high school too directed towards elementary school level; concern among teachers that approach would not increase standardized test scores inhibited teacher willingness to implement design; concern among teachers that ELOB was just a fad inhibited teacher willingness to implement design; majority of classroom teaching based on traditional forms, not ELOB principles, curriculum not well integrated; self- motivated and self-paced education rare; learning expeditions infrequently seen.

 

Summary of Implementation for Foxfire Fund

Source

Number of Sites Studied

Type

Number of Years in Operation

School Grade Level

School Urbanicity

Student

Demographics

Key Findings
Baldassari (1996)

Schools in 2 districts

 Replicate Fall following Level One course attendance Pre-K-

12

 Rural One district:
30% minority

 

Second district:
90% Caucasian

 Of 12 teachers studied, 11 were using something from the Level One course in their classrooms. Only one seemed to reject the approach.

Major difficulty: how to include activities that provided more student decision-making or choices.

Supports for implementing the approach include: course follow-up, the local Foxfire network, the national Foxfire newsletter, superintendent support, principal’s knowledge (and support) of Foxfire.

Barriers to implementation include: having to conform to state mandates that were not aligned with Foxfire; having to use certain textbooks that didn’t allow time to incorporate Foxfire approach; lack of other Foxfire teachers in school; open-school design that inhibited group work; teacher evaluation systems that rewarded teachers for keeping students on task, which was at odds with allowing students to make decisions.
Baldassari (1998)

7 teachers

 Replicate Various K-12 Various Various Three stages of implementation: Years 1-2: get started, focus on barriers in 1996 study; Years 3-4: projects that provide student choice, balance use of core prac-tices with school demands; Years 5-10: integrate core practices and mandated curriculum, address barriers. Teachers in different schools reported support and barriers to implementing Foxfire.

Supports include: administrative support; districtwide commitment to "learner-centered" classrooms; flexible district curriculum; other Foxfire teachers in school.

Barriers include: insufficient time; district policies that limit number of field trips; lack of autonomy in the classroom due to state/local mandates; resistance toward student empowerment.
Baldassari (1998)

6 teachers

 Replicate 2 years K-12 Various One district: 100% minority Second year of longitudinal study. Teachers report increased use of core practices and growing expertise.

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